|
Genetic Engineering in Food and Agriculture:
The European Experience
Jan van Aken
The introduction of genetically engineered crops and food to Europe was a major disaster for the Biotech-Industry. Consumer organisations and NGOs in the European Union have been successful in voicing their concern about possible environmental and health hazards of genetically engineered (GE) organisms. In most western European countries, nearly all food products are still GE-free, and even the animal fodder market is beginning to fall. The market situation in the EU has already repercussions in the USA, the homeland of genetic engineering. For the first time since their introduction, the percentage of acreage planted with GE crops in the USA was falling this year. This article is about the history, strategies and future plans of the anti-GE movement in the European Union.
History
In summary, hardly anybody in Europe was concerned about GE crops until 1996, when GE food products were about to enter the EU market for the first time. The first shipment of GE soybeans from the USA to Europe marked the turning point, and since then the movement is ever growing.
Interestingly, the first concern about genetic engineering had been voiced in the USA. In the mid 1970s when the basic techniques to manipulate DNA emerged, US-scientists initiated a debate about the risks of genetic engineering and drafted guidelines for those working with the new techniques. The first ever release of a GE microorganism, the famous ice-minus bacteria that were sprayed on strawberries in California to prevent freeze damage in the fruit, caused a major outcry in the Californian public in the mid 1980s. However, this was the one and only field trial that was heavily discussed in the USA. When the first trials with genetically engineered plants followed suit, the companies were prepared to fight an uphill battle with the public, but nothing happened. Several thousands of field trials have been performed since 1987 in the USA, hardly noticed by the general public.
The first field trials with a GE crop in Europe took place in Belgium in 1986. It was soon followed after by nearly all other EU states. At that time, only a few people in Europe were following the issue, with the notable exemption of Germany where many scientists and NGOs voiced their concerns and created a very critical climate. It took years until the first field trial was approved in Germany, and until around 1994, nearly every field trial was uprooted and destroyed by local resistance groups.
However, in the mid 1990s, the movement began to decline and there was a situation globally that hardly anybody publicly stood up against the use of genetic engineering. Some expert groups were still lobbying in several countries and warned about the possible health and environmental risks, but with no real public pressure behind it, little could be achieved. Greenpeace started GE-work in 1992 with a focus on the EU patent directive ("No patents on life") and with very limited resources. Those who had followed the issue closely were convinced that nothing could stop the commercial introduction of GE food.
1996 - The Turning Point
The anti-GE movement was dead in 1996 and this is possibly the reason for its incredible success during the last four years. The biotech industry, international grain traders, food companies and retailers were not at all prepared to handle the wave of protests against the introduction of GE food that started in the fall of 1996.
Already in 1994, the first GE crop was approved for commercial use in the USA, a GE tomato with increased shelf life. But this so called FlavrSavr tomato was sold in the US only. It was not before 1996, when the first GE soybeans were harvested and sold on the world market, that the US-American GE crops were shipped abroad and reached Europe.
The turning point for the European GE-movement was the arrival in Europe of the first ship carrying GE. Greenpeace and other NGOs alerted the public and made a series of direct actions at the soya-carrying ships in several European ports. Since this first wave of action, the anti-GE movement is ever growing and has reached many EU countries. The public pressure forced the food industry to stay away from GE ingredients, and forced EU policymakers to decide a moratorium on commercial plantings - there is still no GE plant grown on large areas in the EU for commercial purposes.
Strategy
The core strategy of the European anti-GE movement is the consumer campaign. There are both environmental and health risks associated with GE crops. While environmental issues are also playing a role and are indeed the driving force for the activities of many environmental NGOs, the consumer campaigns proved to be the most effective way to stop the commercial use of GMOs. In principle, they followed the same steps in many countries in Europe, Asia and the Americas:
- Baby food is a specifically good target, as it is the most sensitive food product in terms of safety considerations. Globally, baby food producers are trying to keep as high a standard as possible to satisfy their rather critical customers. Even in the USA, the major baby food producers went GE free after only very initial campaigning.
- Consumer networks and letter writing campaigns. It is crucial to contact as many consumers as possible, both through consumer and other organisations as well as through direct activities in supermarkets. It has been proven to be very effective to initiate letter writing campaigns, were consumers write letters (or make phone calls) to food producers and ask for GE free food. The European food industry never before received so many letters from their consumers as they did regarding the GE issue. This certainly helped to move them into a GE-free production. Targets could be both the food industry and the retailers, which often have there own store brands.
- Shopping lists: In many countries, lists with "green", "yellow", and "red" producers have been published, based on an industry survey. If a producer guarantees GE-free production, it is on the green list. If it is in transition and heading towards GE-free production, it is yellow. Those companies with GE products are on the red list. These lists proved to be very effective if they are communicated through the mass media and directly to many consumers, as they endanger the overall image of those companies on the red list. It is crucial not to rely on industry information only, but also to verify the companies´ statements through laboratory analysis of end products.
- Targeting specific products: If a famous brand contains GE raw material, it might be a good choice to focus all activities on this one brand. Greenpeace in several countries targeted Knorr, a Unilever subsidiary, in Latin America. In Germany, which is essentially GE free, Nestlé tried to market a chocolate bar called "butterfinger" containing GE maize. After one year of focused campaigning, they had to remove the product from the market. In the USA, Kellogg´s is the prime target. If this one brand can be forced through continued consumer pressure to go GE-free, this will set an example for all other food producers in the country or region.
- Labelling: Consumer campaigns are about the right to know of consumers - the right to know what we are eating. Therefore, a crucial demand is clear and comprehensive labelling of GE food products. However, this demand was not at the core of the European campaigns as the food industry and politicians might sidestep it by installing labelling regimes that would only cover a very small percentage of all GE foods easily. "Clear" and "comprehensive" (really everything containing GE must be labelled!) are the two crucial elements of a useful labelling regime.
- Animal feed: Nearly 80% of corn and soya is used as animal fodder. To reach the final goal that no GE crop is planted any more, also the animal fodder market must go GE-free. Although animal fodder is obviously not as easy a target as baby food or breakfast cereals, it has been possible in countries with a strong consumer movement to start a successful animal fodder campaign. Major meat, egg or milk producers in the UK, France and Germany already removed GE-crops from the diet of their animals. This is crucial to increase the market pressure on the USA to decrease the percentage of GE-crops in next year's plantings.
As a result of this consumer campaign, nearly all the bigger food producers in the EU are GE-free, i.e. they are not using raw material from GE plants. But equally important is the political momentum that was gained through the consumer campaign. Although small-scale experimental field trials with GE plants are ongoing in many EU countries, commercial planting was stopped for several years. Most EU countries decided to support a de facto moratorium, i.e. they are not approving new GE varieties for commercial planting until the EU law on deliberate releases of GMOs is revised, which will not be before next year. Similarly, on an international level the Biosafety Protocol was negotiated and agreed upon earlier this year, which provides for the global regulation of the transboundary movement of GMOs and give countries the right to reject imports of GMOs.
Spotlights on the Growing Resistance to GE Crops in Europe
October 1996
The US soybean harvest was contaminated with 2% GE soybeans. The first shipments of the 1996 harvest were "welcomed" by activists all around Europe and sparked the anti-GE movement in the European Union.
February 1997
After the European Commission authorised for the first time commercial planting of a GE plant (the Novartis GE maize), Austria and Luxembourg immediately apply EU legislation (Article16 of Directive 90/220/EEC) to ban its use on their territory.
April 1997
In Austria a People's Petition is hugely successful: 1.2 million Austrians (approx. 25% of the electorate) call for a ban on GE in agriculture and foods.
October 1997
Norway, a member of the European Economic Area, bans the import of Novartis' GE maize and other GE crops containing antibiotic resistance genes.
November 1997
France announces a moratorium on the commercial cultivation of all GE crops with the exception of Novartis' GE maize.
June 1998
A public survey shows that 75% of the British public want a ban on growing GE crops until there has been further assessment of the implications.
July 1998
The French government declares and reconfirms a moratorium on the growing of GE crops that have wild relatives in Europe (i.e. beet and rape).
September 1998
All of Austria's main supermarket chains declare that they do not want to sell GE products, and take them off their shelves.
October 1998
The Greek government decides to apply Article 16 of Directive 90/220/EEC and ban the import of GE rapeseed.
November 1998
The French government decides to apply Article 16 of Directive 90/220/EEC and bans two GE oilseed rape lines.
January 1999
SPAR, Austria's second biggest food retailer, announces it is labelling its range of organic foods called "Natur pur" as guaranteed "genetically engineered free". More than 100 of UK's leading food writers call for a ban on GE food and start a campaign against GE food.
February 1999
The Carrefour French supermarket declares that its own brands will be free from GE, and informs its customers about steps they have taken to ensure this food is GE free.
March 1999
The UK retailer, Sainsbury's, reveals that it has formed a consortium of major European retailers, including Marks & Spencer (UK), Carrefour (France), Superquinn (Ireland), Migros (Switzerland), Delhaize (Belgium) and Esselunga (Italy), which will jointly source GE-free products. The Greek government announces that it will contact other EU member states to get support for a European wide moratorium on all commercial releases of GMOs and on trade in GE seeds.
April 1999
The largest UK retailer Tesco declares to phase out GMOs. This is swiftly followed by the two largest food producers Unilever UK and Nestlé UK also declaring that they will go GE-free.
June 1999
European Environment Ministers declare a de facto moratorium on the market approval of new GMOs in Europe. All but four ministers sign up to two declarations committing themselves to avoid new authorizations until Directive 90/220/EEC governing the release of GMOs into the environment is revised. This is unlikely to happen before 2001.
August 1999
Marks and Spencer UK announce that it will remove GE ingredients from animal feed.
September 1999
The local government of Tuscany refuses to allow field trials of GMOs in the region. Farmers planning to plant GMOs will be excluded from public financial contributions, including those from the EU. Food will be regularly screened for GE content.
December 1999
Danone France declares that its products are produced without GE ingredients or GE additives. Due to widespread consumer concern, Portugal's Agriculture Ministry suspends until further notice the cultivation of two GE maize varieties.
February 2000
The German Health Minister orders the authority responsible for the approval of GMOs to suspend the approval of Novartis GE maize which was given in 1997. Novartis had applied for the unrestricted approval of its GE maize seeds in Germany, which is now suspended as well.
Jan van Aken, Greenpeace International
|
